Home  ›  Could a Human Jump at the Speed of Light to the Moon and Back Again and Survive

Could a Human Jump at the Speed of Light to the Moon and Back Again and Survive

Written By Tuesday, May 24, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Hypothetical travel betwixt stars or planetary systems

A Bussard ramjet, 1 of many possible methods that could serve to propel spacecraft.

Interstellar travel refers to the idea of interstellar probes or crewed spacecraft moving between stars or planetary systems in a galaxy. Interstellar travel would be much more difficult than interplanetary spaceflight. Whereas the distances between the planets in the Solar System are less than 30 astronomical units (AU), the distances between stars are typically hundreds of thousands of AU, and usually expressed in light-years. Because of the vastness of those distances, not-generational interstellar travel based on known physics would need to occur at a loftier pct of the speed of lite; all the same, travel times would exist long, at least decades and maybe millennia or longer.[1]

As of 2022, five uncrewed spacecraft, all launched and operated past the United states, have achieved the escape velocity required to get out the Solar System, as role of missions to explore parts of the outer system. They will therefore continue to travel through interstellar space indefinitely. Even so, they will non approach another star for hundreds of thousands of years, long later they have ceased to operate (though in theory the Voyager Golden Tape would be playable in the highly unlikely event that the spacecraft is retrieved by an extraterrestrial civilization).

The speeds required for interstellar travel in a homo lifetime far exceed what current methods of space travel can provide. Fifty-fifty with a hypothetically perfectly efficient propulsion system, the kinetic energy respective to those speeds is enormous by today'due south standards of energy development. Moreover, collisions at those speeds, of the spacecraft with cosmic dust and gas, can be very dangerous for both passengers and the spacecraft itself.[one]

A number of strategies take been proposed to deal with these problems, ranging from giant arks that would acquit entire societies and ecosystems, to microscopic space probes. Many different spacecraft propulsion systems accept been proposed to give spacecraft the required speeds, including nuclear propulsion, beam-powered propulsion, and methods based on speculative physics.[2]

For both crewed and uncrewed interstellar travel, considerable technological and economic challenges need to be met. Even the most optimistic views near interstellar travel see it as only beingness feasible in decades. All the same, in spite of the challenges, if or when interstellar travel is realized, a wide range of scientific benefits are expected.[three]

Near interstellar travel concepts crave a developed space logistics arrangement capable of moving millions of tonnes to a structure / operating location, and about would require gigawatt-scale power for construction or ability (such equally Star Wisp or Lite Sail type concepts). Such a organisation could grow organically if space-based solar ability became a significant component of Earth's energy mix. Consumer demand for a multi-terawatt organisation would create the necessary multi-million ton/twelvemonth logistical organisation.[4]

Challenges [edit]

Interstellar distances [edit]

Distances between the planets in the Solar Organization are oftentimes measured in astronomical units (AU), defined as the average distance between the Sun and Globe, some ane.v×108 kilometers (93 one thousand thousand miles). Venus, the closest planet to Earth is (at closest arroyo) 0.28 AU away. Neptune, the farthest planet from the Sun, is 29.eight AU abroad. Equally of January nineteen, 2022, Voyager spaceprobe, the farthest human-made object from World, is 156 AU abroad.[5]

The closest known star, Proxima Centauri, is approximately 268,332 AU away, or over 9,000 times farther away than Neptune.

Object Distance
(AU) 		Light time
Moon 0.0026 ane.3 seconds
Lord's day ane 8 minutes
Venus (nearest planet) 0.28 2.41 minutes
Neptune (farthest planet) 29.8 4.1 hours
Voyager 1 148.seven 20.41 hours
Proxima Centauri (nearest star and exoplanet) 268,332 four.24 years

Because of this, distances betwixt stars are usually expressed in light-years (defined as the distance that lite travels in vacuum in ane Julian year) or in parsecs (one parsec is 3.26 ly, the altitude at which stellar parallax is exactly one arcsecond, hence the name). Light in a vacuum travels around 300,000 kilometres (186,000 mi) per 2nd, and so 1 light-yr is nearly 9.461×1012 kilometers (v.879 trillion miles) or 63,241 AU. Proxima Centauri, the nearest (albeit non naked-middle visible) star, is 4.243 light-years away.

Another way of understanding the vastness of interstellar distances is by scaling: One of the closest stars to the Lord's day, Alpha Centauri A (a Sun-like star), can exist pictured by scaling down the Earth–Sun altitude to one meter (iii.28 ft). On this scale, the distance to Alpha Centauri A would be 276 kilometers (171 miles).

The fastest outward-leap spacecraft yet sent, Voyager 1, has covered 1/600 of a light-year in 30 years and is currently moving at 1/eighteen,000 the speed of light. At this charge per unit, a journey to Proxima Centauri would take 80,000 years.[six]

Required free energy [edit]

A pregnant factor contributing to the difficulty is the free energy that must be supplied to obtain a reasonable travel time. A lower jump for the required energy is the kinetic energy K = 1 2 m v 2 {\displaystyle K={\tfrac {1}{2}}mv^{2}} where m {\displaystyle thousand} is the final mass. If deceleration on arrival is desired and cannot exist achieved by whatsoever ways other than the engines of the ship, then the lower jump for the required free energy is doubled to k v two {\displaystyle mv^{two}} .[7]

The velocity for a crewed round trip of a few decades to even the nearest star is several chiliad times greater than those of nowadays space vehicles. This ways that due to the v ii {\displaystyle five^{two}} term in the kinetic energy formula, millions of times as much free energy is required. Accelerating 1 ton to one-10th of the speed of lite requires at least 450 petajoules or 4.50×1017 joules or 125 terawatt-hours[8] (globe energy consumption 2008 was 143,851 terawatt-hours),[ix] without factoring in efficiency of the propulsion mechanism. This energy has to be generated onboard from stored fuel, harvested from the interstellar medium, or projected over immense distances.

Interstellar medium [edit]

A knowledge of the properties of the interstellar gas and dust through which the vehicle must pass is essential for the design of any interstellar space mission.[10] A major effect with traveling at extremely loftier speeds is that interstellar dust may cause considerable damage to the craft, due to the high relative speeds and large kinetic energies involved. Various shielding methods to mitigate this problem have been proposed.[xi] Larger objects (such as macroscopic dust grains) are far less mutual, but would be much more destructive. The risks of impacting such objects, and methods of mitigating these risks, have been discussed in literature, but many unknowns remain[12] and, owing to the inhomogeneous distribution of interstellar matter effectually the Dominicus, will depend on direction travelled.[10] Although a loftier density interstellar medium may crusade difficulties for many interstellar travel concepts, interstellar ramjets, and some proposed concepts for decelerating interstellar spacecraft, would actually do good from a denser interstellar medium.[10]

Hazards [edit]

The crew of an interstellar ship would face up several significant hazards, including the psychological effects of long-term isolation, the furnishings of exposure to ionizing radiation, and the physiological effects of weightlessness to the muscles, joints, bones, immune system, and eyes. There also exists the risk of touch on past micrometeoroids and other space debris. These risks represent challenges that have yet to be overcome.[13]

Wait adding [edit]

The physicist Robert 50. Frontwards has argued that an interstellar mission that cannot be completed within fifty years should not be started at all. Instead, assuming that a civilization is still on an increasing bend of propulsion system velocity and not yet having reached the limit, the resources should exist invested in designing a amend propulsion organisation. This is because a slow spacecraft would probably be passed by another mission sent later with more than advanced propulsion (the incessant obsolescence postulate).[14]

On the other hand, Andrew Kennedy has shown that if one calculates the journey fourth dimension to a given destination equally the rate of travel speed derived from growth (even exponential growth) increases, there is a clear minimum in the full time to that destination from now.[xv] Voyages undertaken earlier the minimum will be overtaken by those that leave at the minimum, whereas voyages that leave after the minimum will never overtake those that left at the minimum.

Prime targets for interstellar travel [edit]

There are 59 known stellar systems inside xl light years of the Sun, containing 81 visible stars. The following could exist considered prime number targets for interstellar missions:[14]

System Distance (ly) Remarks
Alpha Centauri 4.3 Closest system. Three stars (G2, K1, M5). Component A is similar to the Sunday (a G2 star). On Baronial 24, 2016, the discovery of an Earth-size exoplanet (Proxima Centauri b) orbiting in the habitable zone of Proxima Centauri was announced.
Barnard's Star vi Small, low-luminosity M5 red dwarf. Second closest to Solar System.
Sirius 8.7 Large, very bright A1 star with a white dwarf companion.
Epsilon Eridani ten.8 Single K2 star slightly smaller and colder than the Lord's day. It has ii asteroid belts, might have a giant and one much smaller planet,[16] and may possess a Solar-System-blazon planetary system.
Tau Ceti xi.8 Unmarried G8 star similar to the Sun. High probability of possessing a Solar-Organization-type planetary system: current prove shows v planets with potentially two in the habitable zone.
Luyten'due south Star 12.36 M3 red dwarf with the super-Earth Luyten b orbiting in the habitable zone.
Wolf 1061 ~14 Wolf 1061 c is four.3 times the size of Earth; it may have rocky terrain. It also sits within the 'Goldilocks' zone where it might exist possible for liquid h2o to exist.[17]
Gliese 581 planetary system 20.3 Multiple planet system. The unconfirmed exoplanet Gliese 581g and the confirmed exoplanet Gliese 581d are in the star'due south habitable zone.
Gliese 667C 22 A organization with at least six planets. A record-breaking three of these planets are super-Earths lying in the zone around the star where liquid water could exist, making them possible candidates for the presence of life.[eighteen]
Vega 25 A very young system possibly in the process of planetary formation.[19]
TRAPPIST-one 39 A recently discovered system which boasts 7 Earth-like planets, some of which may take liquid water. The discovery is a major advocacy in finding a habitable planet and in finding a planet that could back up life.

Existing and most-term astronomical applied science is capable of finding planetary systems around these objects, increasing their potential for exploration.

Proposed methods [edit]

Tedious, uncrewed probes [edit]

Tedious interstellar missions based on current and about-future propulsion technologies are associated with trip times starting from about one hundred years to thousands of years. These missions consist of sending a robotic probe to a nearby star for exploration, similar to interplanetary probes like those used in the Voyager program.[20] Past taking forth no crew, the cost and complexity of the mission is significantly reduced although technology lifetime is still a significant upshot adjacent to obtaining a reasonable speed of travel. Proposed concepts include Project Daedalus, Project Icarus, Project Dragonfly, Project Longshot,[21] and more recently Breakthrough Starshot.[22]

Fast, uncrewed probes [edit]

Nanoprobes [edit]

Near-lightspeed nano spacecraft might be possible inside the near hereafter built on existing microchip technology with a newly developed nanoscale thruster. Researchers at the University of Michigan are developing thrusters that use nanoparticles as propellant. Their technology is called "nanoparticle field extraction thruster", or nanoFET. These devices human action similar small particle accelerators shooting conductive nanoparticles out into space.[23]

Michio Kaku, a theoretical physicist, has suggested that clouds of "smart grit" be sent to the stars, which may get possible with advances in nanotechnology. Kaku likewise notes that a large number of nanoprobes would need to exist sent due to the vulnerability of very small probes to be easily deflected by magnetic fields, micrometeorites and other dangers to ensure the chances that at least i nanoprobe will survive the journey and reach the destination.[24]

As a virtually-term solution, small-scale, laser-propelled interstellar probes, based on current CubeSat technology were proposed in the context of Projection Dragonfly.[21]

Slow, crewed missions [edit]

In crewed missions, the duration of a slow interstellar journeying presents a major obstacle and existing concepts bargain with this problem in different ways.[25] They can be distinguished by the "state" in which humans are transported on-board of the spacecraft.

Generation ships [edit]

A generation transport (or world ship) is a blazon of interstellar ark in which the crew that arrives at the destination is descended from those who started the journey. Generation ships are not currently feasible because of the difficulty of constructing a send of the enormous required scale and the great biological and sociological problems that life aboard such a ship raises.[26] [27] [28] [29] [thirty]

Suspended animation [edit]

Scientists and writers accept postulated various techniques for suspended blitheness. These include human hibernation and cryonic preservation. Although neither is currently practical, they offering the possibility of sleeper ships in which the passengers lie inert for the long elapsing of the voyage.[31]

Frozen embryos [edit]

A robotic interstellar mission carrying some number of frozen early stage human embryos is another theoretical possibility. This method of space colonization requires, amid other things, the development of an artificial uterus, the prior detection of a habitable terrestrial planet, and advances in the field of fully democratic mobile robots and educational robots that would supervene upon human parents.[32]

Island hopping through interstellar space [edit]

Interstellar space is not completely empty; it contains trillions of icy bodies ranging from pocket-size asteroids (Oort cloud) to possible rogue planets. There may be means to accept reward of these resources for a expert part of an interstellar trip, slowly hopping from torso to body or setting up waystations along the fashion.[33]

Fast, crewed missions [edit]

If a spaceship could average 10 percent of light speed (and decelerate at the destination, for human crewed missions), this would be enough to reach Proxima Centauri in twoscore years. Several propulsion concepts take been proposed[34] that might be eventually developed to accomplish this (encounter § Propulsion below), but none of them are ready for near-term (few decades) developments at acceptable toll.

Time dilation [edit]

Physicists more often than not believe faster-than-light travel is impossible. Relativistic time dilation allows a traveler to experience time more slowly, the closer their speed is to the speed of low-cal.[35] This credible slowing becomes noticeable when velocities higher up 80% of the speed of light are attained. Clocks aboard an interstellar ship would run slower than Earth clocks, so if a ship'south engines were capable of continuously generating around one g of dispatch (which is comfortable for humans), the ship could reach about anywhere in the galaxy and return to Globe within xl years ship-time (see diagram). Upon render, there would be a difference between the fourth dimension elapsed on the astronaut'southward transport and the time elapsed on Earth.

For instance, a spaceship could travel to a star 32 light-years abroad, initially accelerating at a abiding 1.03g (i.e. 10.one m/south2) for i.32 years (ship time), then stopping its engines and coasting for the next 17.3 years (ship time) at a abiding speed, and then decelerating again for 1.32 ship-years, and coming to a stop at the destination. After a short visit, the astronaut could return to Earth the same fashion. After the full round-trip, the clocks on lath the send show that twoscore years have passed, only according to those on Earth, the transport comes back 76 years later on launch.

From the viewpoint of the astronaut, onboard clocks seem to be running commonly. The star alee seems to be approaching at a speed of 0.87 light years per ship-twelvemonth. The universe would announced contracted along the direction of travel to half the size it had when the ship was at rest; the distance betwixt that star and the Sun would seem to be 16 light years every bit measured by the astronaut.

At higher speeds, the time on board will run even slower, and then the astronaut could travel to the center of the Milky Way (xxx,000 calorie-free years from Globe) and back in 40 years ship-time. But the speed according to Globe clocks will always be less than 1 light year per Earth yr, then, when back dwelling house, the astronaut will find that more than than 60 m years will have passed on Earth.

Constant acceleration [edit]

This plot shows a send capable of 1-g (ten m/s2 or about ane.0 ly/y2) "felt" or proper-acceleration[36] can go far, except for the problem of accelerating on-board propellant.

Regardless of how it is achieved, a propulsion organisation that could produce acceleration continuously from divergence to inflow would be the fastest method of travel. A constant acceleration journeying is ane where the propulsion system accelerates the transport at a constant rate for the start one-half of the journey, and then decelerates for the 2d half, so that it arrives at the destination stationary relative to where it began. If this were performed with an acceleration similar to that experienced at the Earth'southward surface, it would have the added advantage of producing artificial "gravity" for the crew. Supplying the energy required, however, would be prohibitively expensive with current technology.[37]

From the perspective of a planetary observer, the ship will announced to accelerate steadily at first, only then more than gradually as it approaches the speed of lite (which it cannot exceed). It will undergo hyperbolic motion.[38] The ship will be close to the speed of light after about a twelvemonth of accelerating and remain at that speed until it brakes for the cease of the journey.

From the perspective of an onboard observer, the crew will feel a gravitational field opposite the engine'south acceleration, and the universe alee volition announced to autumn in that field, undergoing hyperbolic motion. As part of this, distances betwixt objects in the direction of the ship's motility will gradually contract until the ship begins to decelerate, at which time an onboard observer's experience of the gravitational field will exist reversed.

When the ship reaches its destination, if it were to exchange a message with its origin planet, it would find that less time had elapsed on board than had elapsed for the planetary observer, due to time dilation and length wrinkle.

The upshot is an impressively fast journey for the crew.

Propulsion [edit]

Rocket concepts [edit]

All rocket concepts are limited by the rocket equation, which sets the characteristic velocity available as a function of exhaust velocity and mass ratio, the ratio of initial (M 0, including fuel) to concluding (M ane, fuel depleted) mass.

Very loftier specific power, the ratio of thrust to total vehicle mass, is required to reach interstellar targets within sub-century time-frames.[39] Some heat transfer is inevitable and a tremendous heating load must be adequately handled.

Thus, for interstellar rocket concepts of all technologies, a primal applied science problem (seldom explicitly discussed) is limiting the estrus transfer from the exhaust stream back into the vehicle.[40]

Ion engine [edit]

A type of electric propulsion, spacecraft such as Dawn utilize an ion engine. In an ion engine, electrical power is used to create charged particles of the propellant, unremarkably the gas xenon, and accelerate them to extremely loftier velocities. The exhaust velocity of conventional rockets is limited to about v km/s by the chemical energy stored in the fuel'southward molecular bonds. They produce a high thrust (nigh 106 N), just they have a low specific impulse, and that limits their tiptop speed. By dissimilarity, ion engines have depression strength, but the peak speed in principle is limited only past the electrical power available on the spacecraft and on the gas ions being accelerated. The exhaust speed of the charged particles range from xv km/s to 35 km/due south.[41]

Nuclear fission powered [edit]

Fission-electric [edit]

Nuclear-electric or plasma engines, operating for long periods at low thrust and powered by fission reactors, have the potential to reach speeds much greater than chemically powered vehicles or nuclear-thermal rockets. Such vehicles probably have the potential to power solar system exploration with reasonable trip times within the current century. Considering of their low-thrust propulsion, they would be limited to off-planet, deep-space operation. Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion powered past a portable ability-source, say a nuclear reactor, producing only minor accelerations, would take centuries to accomplish for example 15% of the velocity of low-cal, thus unsuitable for interstellar flight during a unmarried homo lifetime.[42]

Fission-fragment [edit]

Fission-fragment rockets use nuclear fission to create high-speed jets of fission fragments, which are ejected at speeds of up to 12,000 km/s (7,500 mi/s). With fission, the energy output is approximately 0.1% of the total mass-energy of the reactor fuel and limits the effective frazzle velocity to about 5% of the velocity of calorie-free. For maximum velocity, the reaction mass should optimally consist of fission products, the "ash" of the primary free energy source, so no extra reaction mass need be bookkept in the mass ratio.

Nuclear pulse [edit]

Mod Pulsed Fission Propulsion Concept.

Based on work in the belatedly 1950s to the early 1960s, it has been technically possible to build spaceships with nuclear pulse propulsion engines, i.eastward. driven by a series of nuclear explosions. This propulsion system contains the prospect of very loftier specific impulse (space travel's equivalent of fuel economic system) and loftier specific power.[43]

Project Orion team fellow member Freeman Dyson proposed in 1968 an interstellar spacecraft using nuclear pulse propulsion that used pure deuterium fusion detonations with a very high fuel-burnup fraction. He computed an frazzle velocity of 15,000 km/southward and a 100,000-tonne infinite vehicle able to attain a 20,000 km/due south delta-five assuasive a flight-time to Alpha Centauri of 130 years.[44] Later on studies indicate that the elevation cruise velocity that can theoretically be accomplished by a Teller-Ulam thermonuclear unit powered Orion starship, assuming no fuel is saved for slowing back down, is virtually viii% to 10% of the speed of low-cal (0.08-0.1c).[45] An atomic (fission) Orion can attain possibly three%-5% of the speed of light. A nuclear pulse bulldoze starship powered by fusion-antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion units would exist similarly in the x% range and pure matter-antimatter annihilation rockets would be theoretically capable of obtaining a velocity between 50% to 80% of the speed of lite. In each instance saving fuel for slowing downwards halves the maximum speed. The concept of using a magnetic sheet to decelerate the spacecraft as information technology approaches its destination has been discussed as an alternative to using propellant, this would allow the ship to travel near the maximum theoretical velocity.[46] Alternative designs utilizing similar principles include Project Longshot, Project Daedalus, and Mini-Mag Orion. The principle of external nuclear pulse propulsion to maximize survivable power has remained common among serious concepts for interstellar flight without external ability beaming and for very high-performance interplanetary flying.

In the 1970s the Nuclear Pulse Propulsion concept further was refined by Project Daedalus by use of externally triggered inertial confinement fusion, in this case producing fusion explosions via compressing fusion fuel pellets with loftier-powered electron beams. Since so, lasers, ion beams, neutral particle beams and hyper-kinetic projectiles have been suggested to produce nuclear pulses for propulsion purposes.[47]

A current impediment to the development of whatever nuclear-explosion-powered spacecraft is the 1963 Partial Examination Ban Treaty, which includes a prohibition on the detonation of whatsoever nuclear devices (even not-weapon based) in outer space. This treaty would, therefore, demand to be renegotiated, although a project on the scale of an interstellar mission using currently foreseeable engineering would probably require international cooperation on at to the lowest degree the scale of the International Space Station.

Another upshot to exist considered, would be the g-forces imparted to a rapidly accelerated spacecraft, cargo, and passengers inside (meet Inertia negation).

Nuclear fusion rockets [edit]

Fusion rocket starships, powered by nuclear fusion reactions, should conceivably exist able to reach speeds of the club of ten% of that of low-cal, based on free energy considerations lonely. In theory, a large number of stages could push a vehicle arbitrarily close to the speed of low-cal.[48] These would "fire" such light element fuels as deuterium, tritium, 3He, xiB, and 7Li. Because fusion yields near 0.3–0.9% of the mass of the nuclear fuel as released free energy, it is energetically more favorable than fission, which releases <0.one% of the fuel'southward mass-energy. The maximum exhaust velocities potentially energetically available are correspondingly higher than for fission, typically four–10% of the speed of light. Withal, the most easily achievable fusion reactions release a big fraction of their free energy as high-free energy neutrons, which are a significant source of energy loss. Thus, although these concepts seem to offer the best (nearest-term) prospects for travel to the nearest stars within a (long) human lifetime, they still involve massive technological and engineering difficulties, which may plough out to be intractable for decades or centuries.

Daedalus interstellar probe.

Early studies include Project Daedalus, performed by the British Interplanetary Order in 1973–1978, and Project Longshot, a pupil project sponsored by NASA and the U.s. Naval Academy, completed in 1988. Another fairly detailed vehicle system, "Discovery II",[49] designed and optimized for crewed Solar System exploration, based on the D3He reaction but using hydrogen as reaction mass, has been described by a team from NASA'southward Glenn Research Eye. It achieves characteristic velocities of >300 km/s with an acceleration of ~1.7•10−3 yard, with a ship initial mass of ~1700 metric tons, and payload fraction above 10%. Although these are nonetheless far brusque of the requirements for interstellar travel on man timescales, the study seems to represent a reasonable benchmark towards what may exist approachable within several decades, which is not impossibly beyond the current state-of-the-art. Based on the concept'south 2.ii% burnup fraction it could attain a pure fusion production exhaust velocity of ~three,000 km/s.

Antimatter rockets [edit]

An antimatter rocket would have a far higher energy density and specific impulse than whatsoever other proposed class of rocket.[34] If energy resources and efficient product methods are found to make antimatter in the quantities required and shop[fifty] [51] information technology safely, it would exist theoretically possible to accomplish speeds of several tens of percentage that of light.[34] Whether antimatter propulsion could lead to the higher speeds (>90% that of calorie-free) at which relativistic fourth dimension dilation would become more noticeable, thus making time pass at a slower rate for the travelers as perceived past an outside observer, is doubtful owing to the large quantity of antimatter that would be required.[34] [52]

Speculating that production and storage of antimatter should get feasible, 2 further issues need to be considered. First, in the annihilation of antimatter, much of the energy is lost as high-energy gamma radiations, and specially likewise equally neutrinos, so that only about 40% of mc 2 would actually be available if the antimatter were simply immune to annihilate into radiation thermally.[34] Nevertheless, the energy available for propulsion would exist substantially higher than the ~1% of mc 2 yield of nuclear fusion, the next-best rival candidate.

Second, heat transfer from the frazzle to the vehicle seems likely to transfer enormous wasted energy into the send (e.thousand. for 0.1g transport acceleration, budgeted 0.3 trillion watts per ton of ship mass), considering the large fraction of the energy that goes into penetrating gamma rays. Fifty-fifty bold shielding was provided to protect the payload (and passengers on a crewed vehicle), some of the energy would inevitably heat the vehicle, and may thereby prove a limiting factor if useful accelerations are to exist achieved.

More than recently, Friedwardt Winterberg proposed that a matter-antimatter GeV gamma ray laser photon rocket is possible by a relativistic proton-antiproton pinch discharge, where the recoil from the laser beam is transmitted past the Mössbauer effect to the spacecraft.[53]

Rockets with an external energy source [edit]

Rockets deriving their power from external sources, such as a laser, could supervene upon their internal energy source with an energy collector, potentially reducing the mass of the send greatly and allowing much college travel speeds. Geoffrey A. Landis has proposed an interstellar probe, with energy supplied by an external laser from a base station powering an Ion thruster.[54]

Non-rocket concepts [edit]

A problem with all traditional rocket propulsion methods is that the spacecraft would need to behave its fuel with information technology, thus making it very massive, in accordance with the rocket equation. Several concepts try to escape from this trouble:[34] [55]

RF resonant cavity thruster [edit]

A radio frequency (RF) resonant cavity thruster is a device that is claimed to exist a spacecraft thruster. In 2016, the Advanced Propulsion Physics Laboratory at NASA reported observing a small credible thrust from one such test, a consequence not since replicated.[56] I of the designs is called EMDrive. In December 2002, Satellite Propulsion Research Ltd described a working prototype with an alleged full thrust of virtually 0.02 newtons powered by an 850 W cavity magnetron. The device could operate for only a few dozen seconds before the magnetron failed, due to overheating.[57] The latest test on the EMDrive concluded that information technology does not work.[58]

Helical engine [edit]

Proposed in 2019 past NASA scientist Dr. David Burns, the helical engine concept would use a particle accelerator to advance particles to near the speed of lite. Since particles traveling at such speeds acquire more mass, it is believed that this mass change could create acceleration. Co-ordinate to Burns, the spacecraft could theoretically reach 99% the speed of light.[59]

Interstellar ramjets [edit]

In 1960, Robert W. Bussard proposed the Bussard ramjet, a fusion rocket in which a huge scoop would collect the diffuse hydrogen in interstellar infinite, "burn" information technology on the fly using a proton–proton chain reaction, and expel information technology out of the dorsum. Later calculations with more accurate estimates suggest that the thrust generated would exist less than the drag caused by whatsoever believable scoop pattern.[ citation needed ] Nonetheless the idea is bonny considering the fuel would exist collected en route (commensurate with the concept of energy harvesting), so the arts and crafts could theoretically advance to nigh the speed of light. The limitation is due to the fact that the reaction can only advance the propellant to 0.12c. Thus the elevate of catching interstellar dust and the thrust of accelerating that same dust to 0.12c would be the same when the speed is 0.12c, preventing further dispatch.

Beamed propulsion [edit]

A calorie-free sail or magnetic canvas powered by a massive laser or particle accelerator in the home star organization could potentially reach even greater speeds than rocket- or pulse propulsion methods, because it would not need to carry its own reaction mass and therefore would simply need to accelerate the craft's payload. Robert L. Forward proposed a means for decelerating an interstellar arts and crafts with a low-cal sheet of 100 kilometers in the destination star system without requiring a light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation array to be present in that organisation. In this scheme, a secondary sail of thirty kilometers is deployed to the rear of the spacecraft, while the big primary sail is detached from the arts and crafts to go on moving forward on its ain. Light is reflected from the large primary sail to the secondary sail, which is used to decelerate the secondary sheet and the spacecraft payload.[60] In 2002, Geoffrey A. Landis of NASA's Glen Enquiry heart also proposed a laser-powered, propulsion, sail ship that would host a diamond sail (of a few nanometers thick) powered with the apply of solar free energy.[61] With this proposal, this interstellar ship would, theoretically, be able to reach 10 per centum the speed of light. It has also been proposed to employ beamed-powered propulsion to accelerate a spacecraft, and electromagnetic propulsion to decelerate it; thus, eliminating the trouble that the Bussard ramjet has with the elevate produced during acceleration.[62]

A magnetic sail could also decelerate at its destination without depending on carried fuel or a driving beam in the destination system, by interacting with the plasma plant in the solar wind of the destination star and the interstellar medium.[63] [64]

The following table lists some example concepts using beamed laser propulsion as proposed by the physicist Robert L. Forward:[65]

Mission Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation Power Vehicle Mass Dispatch Canvass Diameter Maximum Velocity
(% of the speed of light)
1. Flyby – Alpha Centauri, xl years
outbound stage 65 GW one t 0.036 grand iii.half-dozen km 11% @ 0.17 ly
two. Rendezvous – Alpha Centauri, 41 years
outbound phase 7,200 GW 785 t 0.005 g 100 km 21% @ 4.29 ly[ dubious – discuss ]
deceleration phase 26,000 GW 71 t 0.2 thou thirty km 21% @ 4.29 ly
3. Crewed – Epsilon Eridani, 51 years (including v years exploring star system)
outbound stage 75,000,000 GW 78,500 t 0.iii g thou km 50% @ 0.4 ly
deceleration phase 21,500,000 GW 7,850 t 0.iii g 320 km l% @ x.4 ly
return phase 710,000 GW 785 t 0.3 g 100 km 50% @ 10.4 ly
deceleration stage 60,000 GW 785 t 0.3 g 100 km 50% @ 0.four ly
Interstellar travel itemize to use photogravitational assists for a full terminate [edit]

The following table is based on work past Heller, Hippke and Kervella.[66]

Name Travel time
(year)		 Distance
(ly)		 Luminosity
(L☉)
Sirius A 68.90 8.58 24.20
α Centauri A 101.25 iv.36 1.52
α Centauri B 147.58 4.36 0.50
Procyon A 154.06 xi.44 6.94
Vega 167.39 25.02 50.05
Altair 176.67 16.69 10.70
Fomalhaut A 221.33 25.thirteen 16.67
Denebola 325.56 35.78 14.66
Castor A 341.35 50.98 49.85
Epsilon Eridani 363.35 x.50 0.50
  • Successive assists at α Cen A and B could allow travel times to 75 twelvemonth to both stars.
  • Lightsail has a nominal mass-to-surface ratio (σnom) of 8.6×10−4 gram m−two for a nominal graphene-class sail.
  • Area of the Lightsail, near ten5 10002 = (316 m)2
  • Velocity up to 37,300 km s−one (12.5% c)

Pre-accelerated fuel [edit]

Achieving start-cease interstellar trip times of less than a man lifetime crave mass-ratios of between 1,000 and 1,000,000, fifty-fifty for the nearer stars. This could be accomplished by multi-staged vehicles on a vast calibration.[48] Alternatively large linear accelerators could propel fuel to fission propelled space-vehicles, avoiding the limitations of the Rocket equation.[67]

Theoretical concepts [edit]

Transmission of minds with calorie-free [edit]

Uploaded human minds or AI could be transmitted with laser or radio signals at the speed of light.[68] This requires a receiver at the destination which would first have to exist set upward e.thou. by humans, probes, cocky replicating machines (potentially along with AI or uploaded humans), or an conflicting civilisation (which might also exist in a dissimilar galaxy, maybe a Kardashev type 3 civilization).

Faster-than-light travel [edit]

Scientists and authors have postulated a number of ways by which it might be possible to surpass the speed of light, but even the nigh serious-minded of these are highly speculative.[69]

It is too debatable whether faster-than-calorie-free travel is physically possible, in function because of causality concerns: travel faster than low-cal may, under certain conditions, permit travel backwards in time inside the context of special relativity.[lxx] Proposed mechanisms for faster-than-light travel inside the theory of general relativity crave the being of exotic thing[69] and it is non known if this could be produced in sufficient quantity.

Alcubierre drive [edit]

In physics, the Alcubierre bulldoze is based on an argument, within the framework of general relativity and without the introduction of wormholes, that information technology is possible to modify spacetime in a fashion that allows a spaceship to travel with an arbitrarily big speed by a local expansion of spacetime behind the spaceship and an opposite contraction in front of it.[71] Even so, this concept would require the spaceship to incorporate a region of exotic matter, or hypothetical concept of negative mass.[71]

Artificial black hole [edit]

A theoretical idea for enabling interstellar travel is by propelling a starship past creating an artificial black hole and using a parabolic reflector to reverberate its Hawking radiations. Although beyond current technological capabilities, a blackness pigsty starship offers some advantages compared to other possible methods. Getting the blackness hole to human activity as a ability source and engine as well requires a fashion to convert the Hawking radiation into free energy and thrust. One potential method involves placing the hole at the focal point of a parabolic reflector attached to the ship, creating forward thrust. A slightly easier, but less efficient method would involve simply absorbing all the gamma radiation heading towards the fore of the ship to button information technology onwards, and let the rest shoot out the dorsum.[72] [73] [74]

Wormholes [edit]

Wormholes are conjectural distortions in spacetime that theorists postulate could connect two arbitrary points in the universe, across an Einstein–Rosen Span. It is not known whether wormholes are possible in exercise. Although there are solutions to the Einstein equation of general relativity that allow for wormholes, all of the currently known solutions involve some supposition, for instance the beingness of negative mass, which may be unphysical.[75] However, Cramer et al. debate that such wormholes might have been created in the early universe, stabilized past catholic strings.[76] The general theory of wormholes is discussed by Visser in the book Lorentzian Wormholes.[77]

Designs and studies [edit]

Enzmann starship [edit]

The Enzmann starship, equally detailed past G. Harry Stine in the October 1973 result of Analog, was a design for a future starship, based on the ideas of Robert Duncan-Enzmann. The spacecraft itself every bit proposed used a 12,000,000 ton ball of frozen deuterium to power 12–24 thermonuclear pulse propulsion units. Twice every bit long as the Empire State Building and assembled in-orbit, the spacecraft was part of a larger projection preceded by interstellar probes and telescopic ascertainment of target star systems.[78]

Project Hyperion [edit]

Project Hyperion, one of the projects of Icarus Interstellar has looked into diverse feasibility issues of crewed interstellar travel.[79] [lxxx] [81] Its members continue to publish on crewed interstellar travel in collaboration with the Initiative for Interstellar Studies.[27]

NASA research [edit]

NASA has been researching interstellar travel since its germination, translating of import foreign language papers and conducting early studies on applying fusion propulsion, in the 1960s, and laser propulsion, in the 1970s, to interstellar travel.

In 1994, NASA and JPL cosponsored a "Workshop on Avant-garde Quantum/Relativity Theory Propulsion" to "establish and use new frames of reference for thinking about the faster-than-light (FTL) question".[82]

The NASA Quantum Propulsion Physics Program (terminated in FY 2003 after a 6-yr, $1.2-one thousand thousand study, because "No breakthroughs appear imminent.")[83] identified some breakthroughs that are needed for interstellar travel to be possible.[84]

Geoffrey A. Landis of NASA'southward Glenn Enquiry Centre states that a laser-powered interstellar canvass send could perhaps be launched inside 50 years, using new methods of space travel. "I call up that ultimately we're going to exercise it, it's just a question of when and who," Landis said in an interview. Rockets are too slow to send humans on interstellar missions. Instead, he envisions interstellar craft with extensive sails, propelled by laser calorie-free to about ane-10th the speed of light. Information technology would take such a ship most 43 years to attain Alpha Centauri if it passed through the system without stopping. Slowing downward to end at Alpha Centauri could increase the trip to 100 years,[85] whereas a journey without slowing down raises the issue of making sufficiently accurate and useful observations and measurements during a fly-by.

100 Year Starship written report [edit]

The 100 Year Starship (100YSS) study was the name of a ane-twelvemonth project to appraise the attributes of and lay the background for an organization that can acquit forwards the 100 Twelvemonth Starship vision. 100YSS-related symposia were organized between 2011 and 2015.

Harold ("Sonny") White[86] from NASA's Johnson Space Center is a fellow member of Icarus Interstellar,[87] the nonprofit foundation whose mission is to realize interstellar flight earlier the year 2100. At the 2012 meeting of 100YSS, he reported using a laser to endeavor to warp spacetime past 1 function in 10 million with the aim of helping to make interstellar travel possible.[88]

Other designs [edit]

  • Project Orion, human crewed interstellar ship (1958–1968).
  • Projection Daedalus, uncrewed interstellar probe (1973–1978).
  • Starwisp, uncrewed interstellar probe (1985).[89]
  • Project Longshot, uncrewed interstellar probe (1987–1988).
  • Starseed/launcher, fleet of uncrewed interstellar probes (1996)
  • Project Valkyrie, man crewed interstellar transport (2009)
  • Project Icarus, uncrewed interstellar probe (2009–2014).
  • Sun-diver, uncrewed interstellar probe[90]
  • Projection Dragonfly, small laser-propelled interstellar probe (2013-2015).
  • Breakthrough Starshot, armada of uncrewed interstellar probes, announced on April 12, 2016.[91] [92] [93]

Non-profit organizations [edit]

A few organisations dedicated to interstellar propulsion research and advancement for the instance exist worldwide. These are withal in their infancy, but are already backed upwards by a membership of a wide diversity of scientists, students and professionals.

  • Initiative for Interstellar Studies (United kingdom)[94]
  • Tau Zero Foundation (USA)[95]

Feasibility [edit]

The energy requirements make interstellar travel very difficult. It has been reported that at the 2008 Joint Propulsion Briefing, multiple experts opined that information technology was improbable that humans would ever explore across the Solar Organisation.[96] Brice N. Cassenti, an associate professor with the Department of Engineering and Science at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, stated that at to the lowest degree 100 times the total energy output of the entire globe [in a given yr] would be required to send a probe to the nearest star.[96]

Astrophysicist Sten Odenwald stated that the basic problem is that through intensive studies of thousands of detected exoplanets, near of the closest destinations within 50 light years do not yield Earth-like planets in the star's habitable zones.[97] Given the multitrillion-dollar expense of some of the proposed technologies, travelers will have to spend upward to 200 years traveling at xx% the speed of low-cal to reach the all-time known destinations. Moreover, once the travelers arrive at their destination (by any means), they will not be able to travel down to the surface of the target world and ready a colony unless the temper is not-lethal. The prospect of making such a journey, merely to spend the residue of the colony'southward life inside a sealed habitat and venturing exterior in a spacesuit, may eliminate many prospective targets from the list.

Moving at a speed close to the speed of light and encountering fifty-fifty a tiny stationary object like a grain of sand will have fatal consequences. For example, a gram of matter moving at 90% of the speed of light contains a kinetic energy corresponding to a small nuclear bomb (effectually 30kt TNT).

One of the major stumbling blocks is having enough Onboard Spares & Repairs facilities for such a lengthy fourth dimension journey assuming all other considerations are solved, without access to all the resource available on Earth.[98]

Interstellar missions not for human being benefit [edit]

Explorative high-speed missions to Blastoff Centauri, equally planned for by the Breakthrough Starshot initiative, are projected to be realizable within the 21st century.[99] It is alternatively possible to program for uncrewed deadening-cruising missions taking millennia to arrive. These probes would non exist for human benefit in the sense that one tin can non foresee whether there would exist anybody around on world interested in so back-transmitted science data. An example would exist the Genesis mission,[100] which aims to bring unicellular life, in the spirit of directed panspermia, to habitable but otherwise arid planets.[101] Comparatively slow cruising Genesis probes, with a typical speed of c / 300 {\displaystyle c/300} , corresponding to most yard km/s {\displaystyle yard\,{\mbox{km/s}}} , tin can exist decelerated using a magnetic sail. Uncrewed missions not for human benefit would hence be viable.[102] For biotic ethics, and their extension to space as panbiotic ethics, it is a human purpose to secure and propagate life and to use space to maximize life.

Discovery of Earth-Like planets [edit]

In February 2017, NASA appear that its Spitzer Infinite Telescope had revealed vii Earth-size planets in the TRAPPIST-i system orbiting an ultra-cool dwarf star forty lite-years away from the Solar System.[103] Three of these planets are firmly located in the habitable zone, the area around the parent star where a rocky planet is nigh likely to have liquid water. The discovery sets a new record for greatest number of habitable-zone planets found around a single star exterior the Solar Organization. All of these seven planets could have liquid water – the key to life every bit we know information technology – under the right atmospheric conditions, but the chances are highest with the three in the habitable zone.

Run across also [edit]

  • Effect of spaceflight on the homo body – Medical consequences of spaceflight
  • Health threat from cosmic rays
  • Human being spaceflight – Space travel by humans
  • Intergalactic travel – Hypothetical travel between galaxies
  • Interstellar communication – Advice betwixt planetary systems
  • Interstellar object
  • Listing of nearest terrestrial exoplanet candidates
  • Spacecraft propulsion – Method used to accelerate spacecraft
  • Space travel in science fiction
  • Uploaded astronaut

References [edit]

  1. ^ a b Mauldin, John H. (May 1992). Prospects for interstellar travel . Published for the American Astronautical Society by Univelt. Interstellar travel.
  2. ^ "Interstellar Travel". www.bis-space.com. Archived from the original on 2017-06-16. Retrieved 2017-06-16 .
  3. ^ Crawford, I. A. (2009). "The Astronomical, Astrobiological and Planetary Scientific discipline Case for Interstellar Spaceflight". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 62: 415–421. arXiv:1008.4893. Bibcode:2009JBIS...62..415C.
  4. ^ Determination of the 2016 Tennessee Valley Interstellar Workshop Space Solar Power Working Track run by Peter Garretson & Robert Kennedy.
  5. ^ Elizabeth Howell (January 19, 2022). "Voyager 1: Earth'south uttermost spacecraft". Space.com . Retrieved viii April 2022.
  6. ^ "A Wait at the Scaling". nasa.gov. NASA Glenn Research Heart. 2015-03-11.
  7. ^ Millis, Marc G. (2011). "Energy, incessant obsolescence, and the start interstellar missions". arXiv:1101.1066.
  8. ^ Zirnstein, Eastward.J (2013). "Simulating the Compton-Getting Consequence for Hydrogen Flux Measurements: Implications for IBEX-Hi and -Lo Observations". Astrophysical Periodical. 778 (2): 112–127. Bibcode:2013ApJ...778..112Z. doi:10.1088/0004-637x/778/2/112.
  9. ^ Outer Solar Organization : prospective energy and material resource. Badescu, Viorel,, Zacny, Kris. Cham, Switzerland. 2018-04-28. ISBN9783319738451. OCLC 1033673323. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  10. ^ a b c Crawford, I. A. (2011). "Project Icarus: A review of local interstellar medium properties of relevance for space missions to the nearest stars". Acta Astronautica. 68 (vii–8): 691–699. arXiv:1010.4823. Bibcode:2011AcAau..68..691C. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2010.10.016. S2CID 101553.
  11. ^ Westover, Shayne (27 March 2012). Active Radiation Shielding Utilizing High Temperature Superconductors (PDF). NIAC Symposium.
  12. ^ Garrett, Henry (30 July 2012). "There and Back Again: A Layman's Guide to Ultra-Reliability for Interstellar Missions" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on viii May 2014.
  13. ^ Gibson, Dirk C. (2015). Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Space Dangers: Outer Space Perils, Rocket Risks and the Health Consequences of the Space Environment. Bentham Science Publishers. p. 1. ISBN978-1-60805-991-one.
  14. ^ a b Forward, Robert 50. (1996). "Advertizing Astra!". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 49 (ane): 23–32. Bibcode:1996JBIS...49...23F.
  15. ^ Kennedy, Andrew (July 2006). "Interstellar Travel: The Wait Calculation and the Incentive Trap of Progress". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 59 (7): 239–246. Bibcode:2006JBIS...59..239K.
  16. ^ "Planet eps Eridani b". exoplanet.european union . Retrieved 2011-01-fifteen .
  17. ^ Astronomers Have Discovered The Closest Potentially Habitable Planet. Yahoo News. Dec 18, 2015.
  18. ^ "Three Planets in Habitable Zone of Nearby Star". eso.org.
  19. ^ Croswell, Ken (3 December 2012). "ScienceShot: Older Vega Mature Enough to Nurture Life". sciencemag.org. Archived from the original on 4 December 2012.
  20. ^ Voyager. Louisiana Land University: ERIC Clearing House. 1977. p. 12. Retrieved 2015-10-26 .
  21. ^ a b "Projection Dragonfly: The example for small, laser-propelled, distributed probes". Centauri Dreams . Retrieved 12 June 2015.
  22. ^ Nogrady, Bianca. "The myths and reality almost interstellar travel". Retrieved 2017-06-sixteen .
  23. ^ Daniel H. Wilson. Near-lightspeed nano spacecraft might be close. msnbc.msn.com.
  24. ^ Kaku, Michio. The Physics of the Incommunicable. Anchor Books.
  25. ^ Hein, A. M. "How Will Humans Wing to the Stars?". Retrieved 12 April 2013.
  26. ^ Hein, A. M.; et al. (2012). "World Ships: Architectures & Feasibility Revisited". Journal of the British Interplanetary Guild. 65: 119–133. Bibcode:2012JBIS...65..119H.
  27. ^ a b Hein, A.Thou.; Smith, C.; Marin, F.; Staats, K. (2020). "Globe Ships: Feasibility and Rationale". Acta Futura. 12: 75–104. arXiv:2005.04100. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3747333. S2CID 218571111.
  28. ^ Bond, A.; Martin, A.R. (1984). "Earth Ships – An Assessment of the Engineering Feasibility". Periodical of the British Interplanetary Society. 37: 254–266. Bibcode:1984JBIS...37..254B.
  29. ^ Frisbee, R.H. (2009). Limits of Interstellar Flight Technology in Frontiers of Propulsion Science. Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics.
  30. ^ Hein, Andreas M. "Project Hyperion: The Hollow Asteroid Starship – Dissemination of an Thought". Archived from the original on 10 Apr 2013. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
  31. ^ "Various manufactures on hibernation". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 59: 81–144. 2006.
  32. ^ Crowl, A.; Chase, J.; Hein, A.Chiliad. (2012). "Embryo Space Colonisation to Overcome the Interstellar Time Distance Bottleneck". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 65: 283–285. Bibcode:2012JBIS...65..283C.
  33. ^ "'Island-Hopping' to the Stars". Centauri Dreams . Retrieved 12 June 2015.
  34. ^ a b c d e f Crawford, I. A. (1990). "Interstellar Travel: A Review for Astronomers". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 31: 377–400. Bibcode:1990QJRAS..31..377C.
  35. ^ Parkinson, Bradford W.; Spilker, James J. Jr.; Axelrad, Penina; Enge, Per (2014). 18.2.two.1Time Dilation. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. ISBN978-1-56347-106-3 . Retrieved 27 October 2015.
  36. ^ "Clock paradox Iii" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-07-21. Retrieved 2014-08-31 . Taylor, Edwin F.; Wheeler, John Archibald (1966). "Chapter 1 Exercise 51". Spacetime Physics. W.H. Freeman, San Francisco. pp. 97–98. ISBN978-0-7167-0336-5.
  37. ^ Crowell, Benjamin (2011), Light and Matter Section 4.3
  38. ^ Yagasaki, Kazuyuki (2008). "Invariant Manifolds And Control Of Hyperbolic Trajectories On Infinite- Or Finite-Time Intervals". Dynamical Systems. 23 (iii): 309–331. doi:10.1080/14689360802263571. S2CID 123409581.
  39. ^ Orth, C. D. (16 May 2003). "VISTA – A Vehicle for Interplanetary Space Transport Application Powered by Inertial Confinement Fusion" (PDF). Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
  40. ^ Clarke, Arthur C. (1951). The Exploration of Space . New York: Harper.
  41. ^ Dawn Of A New Era: The Revolutionary Ion Engine That Took Spacecraft To Ceres
  42. ^ Project Daedalus: The Propulsion System Part i; Theoretical considerations and calculations. two. REVIEW OF ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS, archived from the original on 2013-06-28
  43. ^ Full general Dynamics Corp. (January 1964). "Nuclear Pulse Vehicle Study Condensed Summary Report (General Dynamics Corp.)" (PDF). U.South. Department of Commerce National Technical Data Service.
  44. ^ Freeman J. Dyson (October 1968). "Interstellar Ship". Physics Today. 21 (x): 41. Bibcode:1968PhT....21j..41D. doi:ten.1063/ane.3034534.
  45. ^ Cosmos by Carl Sagan
  46. ^ Lenard, Roger Ten.; Andrews, Dana Grand. (June 2007). "Apply of Mini-Mag Orion and superconducting coils for near-term interstellar transportation" (PDF). Acta Astronautica. 61 (1–6): 450–458. Bibcode:2007AcAau..61..450L. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2007.01.052. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-06-17. Retrieved 2013-11-24 .
  47. ^ Friedwardt Winterberg (2010). The Release of Thermonuclear Free energy past Inertial Confinement. Globe Scientific. ISBN978-981-4295-91-8.
  48. ^ a b D.F. Spencer; L.D. Jaffe (1963). "Feasibility of Interstellar Travel". Astronautica Acta. 9: 49–58.
  49. ^ PDF C. R. Williams et al., 'Realizing "2001: A Infinite Odyssey": Piloted Spherical Torus Nuclear Fusion Propulsion', 2001, 52 pages, NASA Glenn Research Center
  50. ^ "Storing antimatter - CERN". home.web.cern.ch.
  51. ^ "Alpha Stores Antimatter Atoms Over a Quarter of an Hour – and Still Counting - Berkeley Lab". 5 June 2011.
  52. ^ Rouaud, Mathieu (2020). Interstellar travel and antimatter (PDF). ISBN9782954930930.
  53. ^ Winterberg, F. (21 Baronial 2012). "Thing–antimatter gigaelectron volt gamma ray laser rocket propulsion". Acta Astronautica. 81 (1): 34–39. Bibcode:2012AcAau..81...34W. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2012.07.001.
  54. ^ Landis, Geoffrey A. (29 August 1994). Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation-powered Interstellar Probe. Conference on Practical Robotic Interstellar Flying. NY Academy, New York, NY. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013.
  55. ^ A. Bolonkin (2005). Non Rocket Infinite Launch and Flight. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-044731-5
  56. ^ "NASA Team Claims 'Incommunicable' Infinite Engine Works—Get the Facts". National Geographic News. 2016-xi-21. Retrieved 2019-xi-12 .
  57. ^ "Roger SHAWYER -- EM Infinite Drive -- Manufactures & Patent". rexresearch.com . Retrieved 2019-eleven-12 .
  58. ^ McRae, Mike. "The Latest Test on The 'Impossible' EM Bulldoze Concludes It Doesn't Work". ScienceAlert . Retrieved 2019-11-12 .
  59. ^ Starr, Michelle. "NASA Engineer Claims 'Helical Engine' Concept Could Achieve 99% The Speed of Light Without Propellant". ScienceAlert . Retrieved 2019-11-12 .
  60. ^ Forward, R.50. (1984). "Roundtrip Interstellar Travel Using Laser-Pushed Lightsails". J Spacecraft. 21 (two): 187–195. Bibcode:1984JSpRo..21..187F. doi:10.2514/3.8632.
  61. ^ "Alpha Centauri: Our First Target for Interstellar Probes" – via get.galegroup.com.
  62. ^ Delbert, Caroline (2020-12-09). "The Radical Spacecraft That Could Send Humans to a Habitable Exoplanet". Pop Mechanics . Retrieved 2020-12-12 .
  63. ^ Andrews, Dana G.; Zubrin, Robert Grand. (1990). "Magnetic Sails and Interstellar Travel" (PDF). Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 43: 265–272. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-10-12. Retrieved 2014-10-08 .
  64. ^ Zubrin, Robert; Martin, Andrew (1999-08-11). "NIAC Study of the Magnetic Canvas" (PDF) . Retrieved 2014-10-08 .
  65. ^ Landis, Geoffrey A. (2003). "The Ultimate Exploration: A Review of Propulsion Concepts for Interstellar Flight". In Yoji Kondo; Frederick Bruhweiler; John H. Moore, Charles Sheffield (eds.). Interstellar Travel and Multi-Generation Space Ships. Apogee Books. p. 52. ISBN978-i-896522-99-ix.
  66. ^ Heller, René; Hippke, Michael; Kervella, Pierre (2017). "Optimized trajectories to the nearest stars using lightweight high-velocity photon sails". The Astronomical Journal. 154 (iii): 115. arXiv:1704.03871. Bibcode:2017AJ....154..115H. doi:ten.3847/1538-3881/aa813f. S2CID 119070263.
  67. ^ Roger 10. Lenard; Ronald J. Lipinski (2000). "Interstellar rendezvous missions employing fission propulsion systems". AIP Conference Proceedings. 504: 1544–1555. Bibcode:2000AIPC..504.1544L. doi:10.1063/1.1290979.
  68. ^ "Michio Kaku foretells humanity's boggling future". NBC News. We're going to have the Human Connectome Projection map the human brain before the end of this century, I think. We're going to put the connectome on a laser axle and shoot information technology to the moon. In one 2d, our consciousness is on the moon. In twenty minutes nosotros're on Mars, eight hours we're on Pluto, in four years our consciousness has reached the nearest star.
  69. ^ a b Crawford, Ian A. (1995). "Some thoughts on the implications of faster-than-low-cal interstellar space travel". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Gild. 36: 205–218. Bibcode:1995QJRAS..36..205C.
  70. ^ Feinberg, G. (1967). "Possibility of faster-than-light particles". Physical Review. 159 (v): 1089–1105. Bibcode:1967PhRv..159.1089F. doi:x.1103/physrev.159.1089.
  71. ^ a b Alcubierre, Miguel (1994). "The warp drive: hyper-fast travel within general relativity". Classical and Quantum Gravity. 11 (5): L73–L77. arXiv:gr-qc/0009013. Bibcode:1994CQGra..11L..73A. CiteSeerX10.i.1.338.8690. doi:10.1088/0264-9381/11/v/001. S2CID 4797900.
  72. ^ "Are Blackness Hole Starships Possible?", Louis Crane, Shawn Westmoreland, 2009
  73. ^ Chown, Marcus (25 Nov 2009). "Nighttime power: One thousand designs for interstellar travel". New Scientist (2736). (subscription required)
  74. ^ A Blackness Pigsty Engine That Could Power Spaceships. Tim Barribeau, November 4, 2009.
  75. ^ "Ideas Based On What We'd Like To Achieve: Worm Hole transportation". NASA Glenn Enquiry Center. 11 March 2015.
  76. ^ John G. Cramer; Robert L. Forward; Michael South. Morris; Matt Visser; Gregory Benford; Geoffrey A. Landis (15 March 1995). "Natural Wormholes as Gravitational Lenses". Physical Review D. 51 (3117): 3117–3120. arXiv:ph/9409051. Bibcode:1995PhRvD..51.3117C. doi:x.1103/PhysRevD.51.3117. PMID 10018782. S2CID 42837620.
  77. ^ Visser, One thousand. (1995). Lorentzian Wormholes: from Einstein to Hawking. AIP Press, Woodbury NY. ISBN978-i-56396-394-0.
  78. ^ Gilster, Paul (Apr 1, 2007). "A Note on the Enzmann Starship". Centauri Dreams.
  79. ^ "Icarus Interstellar – Project Hyperion". Retrieved 13 April 2013.
  80. ^ Hein, Andreas; et al. (January 2012). "World Ships – Architectures & Feasibility Revisited". Retrieved 7 February 2013.
  81. ^ Smith, Cameron M (2014). "Estimation of a genetically viable population for multigenerational interstellar voyaging: Review and data for project Hyperion". Acta Astronautica. 97: 16–29. Bibcode:2014AcAau..97...16S. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.12.013.
  82. ^ Bennett, Gary; Frontward, Robert; Frisbee, Robert (10 July 1995). "Written report on the NASA/JPL Workshop on advanced quantum/relativity theory propulsion". 31st Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. doi:10.2514/half-dozen.1995-2599. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
  83. ^ "Breakthrough Propulsion Physics" projection at NASA Glenn Research Center, Nov 19, 2008
  84. ^ http://world wide web.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/technology/warp/warp.html Warp Drive, When? Breakthrough Technologies Jan 26, 2009
  85. ^ "Archived copy". Infinite.com. Archived from the original on 2009-03-27. Retrieved 2009-04-03 . {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as championship (link) Malik, Tariq, "Sex activity and Society Aboard the First Starships." Science Tuesday, Space.com March xix, 2002.
  86. ^ "Dr. Harold "Sonny" White – Icarus Interstellar". icarusinterstellar.org. Archived from the original on i June 2015. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
  87. ^ "Icarus Interstellar – A nonprofit foundation dedicated to achieving interstellar flight past 2100". icarusinterstellar.org. Archived from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 12 June 2015.
  88. ^ Moskowitz, Clara (17 September 2012). "Warp Drive May Exist More than Feasible Than Thought, Scientists Say". space.com.
  89. ^ Forward, R. L. (May–June 1985). "Starwisp – An ultra-calorie-free interstellar probe". Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets. 22 (3): 345–350. Bibcode:1985JSpRo..22..345F. doi:x.2514/three.25754.
  90. ^ Benford, James; Benford, Gregory (2003). "Near-Term Beamed Sail Propulsion Missions: Cosmos-ane and Lord's day-Diver" (PDF). Beamed Energy Propulsion. Department of Physics, University of California, Irvine. 664: 358. Bibcode:2003AIPC..664..358B. doi:10.1063/1.1582124. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-10-24.
  91. ^ "Breakthrough Starshot". Breakthrough Initiatives. 12 April 2016. Retrieved 2016-04-12 .
  92. ^ Starshot – Concept.
  93. ^ "Quantum Initiatives". breakthroughinitiatives.org.
  94. ^ Webpole Bt. "Initiative For Interstellar Studies". i4is.org . Retrieved 12 June 2015.
  95. ^ "Pioneering Interstellar Flying - Tau Goose egg Foundation".
  96. ^ a b O'Neill, Ian (Aug 19, 2008). "Interstellar travel may remain in science fiction". Universe Today.
  97. ^ Odenwald, Sten (April ii, 2015). "Interstellar travel: Where should nosotros go?". Huffington Post Blog.
  98. ^ "Interstellar Travel as Delusional Fantasy [Excerpt]". Scientific American.
  99. ^ Kulkarni, Neeraj; Lubin, Philip; Zhang, Qicheng (2017). "Relativistic Spacecraft Propelled by Directed Energy". The Astronomical Journal. 155 (four): 155. arXiv:1710.10732. Bibcode:2018AJ....155..155K. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aaafd2. S2CID 62839612.
  100. ^ Gros, Claudius (5 September 2016). "Developing ecospheres on transiently habitable planets: the genesis projection". Astrophysics and Space Science. 361 (ten): 324. arXiv:1608.06087. Bibcode:2016Ap&SS.361..324G. doi:ten.1007/s10509-016-2911-0. S2CID 6106567.
  101. ^ How to Jumpstart Life Elsewhere in Our Milky way, The Atlantic, 08-25-17.
  102. ^ Should nosotros seed life through the cosmos using laser-driven ships?, New Scientist, 11-xiii-17.
  103. ^ "NASA Press Release Feb 22nd 2017". 22 February 2017.

Further reading [edit]

  • Crawford, Ian A. (1990). "Interstellar Travel: A Review for Astronomers". Quarterly Journal of the Regal Astronomical Society. 31: 377–400. Bibcode:1990QJRAS..31..377C.
  • Hein, A.One thousand. (September 2012). "Evaluation of Technological-Social and Political Projections for the Next 100-300 Years and the Implications for an Interstellar Mission". Journal of the British Interplanetary Club. 33 (9/ten): 330–340. Bibcode:2012JBIS...65..330H.
  • Long, Kelvin (2012). Deep Space Propulsion: A Roadmap to Interstellar Flight. Springer. ISBN978-1-4614-0606-8.
  • Mallove, Eugene (1989). The Starflight Handbook . John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN978-0-471-61912-3.
  • Odenwald, Sten (2015). Interstellar Travel: An Astronomer'south Guide. ISBN978-1-5120-5627-3.
  • Woodward, James (2013). Making Starships and Stargates: The Scientific discipline of Interstellar Ship and Absurdly Benign Wormholes. Springer. ISBN978-1-4614-5622-3.
  • Zubrin, Robert (1999). Entering Infinite: Creating a Spacefaring Civilisation . Tarcher / Putnam. ISBN978-i-58542-036-0.

External links [edit]

  • Leonard David – Reaching for interstellar flight (2003) – MSNBC (MSNBC Webpage)
  • NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program (NASA Webpage)
  • Bibliography of Interstellar Flight (source list)
  • DARPA seeks aid for interstellar starship Archived 2014-03-04 at the Wayback Car
  • How to build a starship – and why we should start thinking nigh it at present (Commodity from The Conversation, 2016)

pruitthunreired.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstellar_travel

0 Response to "Could a Human Jump at the Speed of Light to the Moon and Back Again and Survive"

Post a Comment

Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)

Iklan Atas Artikel

Iklan Tengah Artikel 1

Iklan Tengah Artikel 2

Iklan Bawah Artikel